Cadmium

EU cadmium consumption declined considerably since 1993 from 7,582 t to 6,759.5 t (in 1994), 5,835.4 t (in 1995 and less than 5,275 t (in 1996 and 1997). This reduction is mainly attributed to what is practically a systematic gradual phase-out of cadmium products other than Ni-Cd batteries and the implementation of more stringent EU environmental legislation introduced earlier but implemented only since the beginning of 1993 and 1996 (Directive 91/338/ECC).

The decline in production and use of the majority of cadmium containing products is due to the combined effect of regulatory policies and existence of adequate quality heavy metal free alternatives. Nickel-cadmium batteries are by far the most significant application and the only product with still relatively high potential. The introduction however, mainly from 1993 onwards, of the nickel-hydrid accumulators and lithium batteries has reduced significantly the use of Ni-Cd batteries in many applications. Batteries for emergency lighting, power tools and home appliances are still well established. In cellular telephones and portable computers Ni-Cd batteries are not any longer as important. Potential new markets for Ni-Cd batteries are the electric vehicles which are expected to increase in the coming years and the far remote areas power systems combined with photovoltaics. However, other types of batteries dynamically compete for these markets and the Ni-Cd pair does not seem to gain support by leading automobile manufacturers. The same is true for the use of cadmium by major solar cell manufacturers who favor the silicon technology. Elaboration of several hypothetical “working” scenaria for future, where no restrictions on cadmium products are in place and electric vehicles are promoted show that the “highest cadmium use” forecasts are in the bracket (14.3-43)´10³ tpa for the period 2005 to 2010. After this period, even on purely technological and market grounds, other technologies are likely to drastically replace cadmium.

It is also natural that a no-restriction hypothetical scenario could have cadmium been acceptable only if combined with an efficient independently, monitored and widespread battery collection and recycling system with very high recovery of secondary cadmium. Such a system eventually will manage to collect and reuse a considerable part of the accumulated in the market cadmium estimated to several hundreds of tonnes. If this is the case the forecasts allow us to realise that in the future the market will not be able to absorb more cadmium deriving from the production of zinc, copper and lead and therefore inevitably a lot of cadmium will end as controlled waste.

Therefore, irrespective of any regulation imposed by the EU sooner or later on cadmium products, the zinc industry should be prepared technologically and economically to properly handle, in the medium and long term, cadmium increasingly not as by-product but as a hazardous waste.

Lead acid batteries

Batteries have been the greatest consumer of lead since the 1960’s, but their importance has risen markedly; in 1960 batteries accounted for 28% of lead use worldwide, whereas in 1997, 73% of lead consumed was for this application.  In Western Europe, 55% of the lead consumed is used in batteries.  The demand for lead-acid batteries, both for automotive applications and for stationary output, is continuing to increase.  They are the most economical form of electricity storage, the technology is well-established and its capabilities and limitations are well known.  However,  lead-acid batteries are heavy and bulky, and store a limited amount of energy.  The average weight of a European car battery is 13 kg, with a lead content of 7.6 kg.  Car batteries typically have a lifetime of approximately 4 years in Europe.  Batteries for stationary power supply have longer lifetimes, up to 10 years.

Exposure to lead in the general population has fallen dramatically over the past 20 years as a result of responsible action by industry and by implementation of appropriate regulations.

Lead usage worldwide continues to increase with over 70% consumed in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries.  The proportion of lead requirements supplied by recycling now exceeds 60% in Western Europe and is rising.  Emissions to the environment have been greatly reduced as a result of good industrial practice, though still remain a matter of close attention.  The vast majority of the EU population now receives doses well below levels of concern.   These facts must be taken into account in defining future policy objectives.

Mercury

Battery production was the third largest use of Hg in 1989, and the second largest in 1990, when it changed position with paints. It was used both as the key component in mercury batteries and as an additive in other types. Mercury batteries have virtually disappeared from OECD countries and alkaline batteries have become ‘mercury free’. Outside OECD, the situation is less reassuring.

(based on the first version of the synopsis of the background document Data and Trends in Production, Consumption, Use and theoretical Background for Future Policies on Cadmium, Lead and Mercury prepared for the International EUPHEMET Workshop, Athens 17-18 April 2000)